Mutation of key signaling regulators of cerebrovascular development in vein of Galen malformations.

To elucidate the pathogenesis of vein of Galen malformations (VOGMs), the most common and most severe of congenital brain arteriovenous malformations, we performed an integrated analysis of 310 VOGM proband-family exomes and 336,326 human cerebrovasculature single-cell transcriptomes. We found the Ras suppressor p120 RasGAP (RASA1) harbored a genome-wide significant burden of loss-of-function de novo variants (2042.5-fold, p = 4.79 x 10-7). Rare, damaging transmitted variants were enriched in Ephrin receptor-B4 (EPHB4) (17.5-fold, p = 1.22 x 10-5), which cooperates with p120 RasGAP to regulate vascular development. Additional probands had damaging variants in ACVRL1, NOTCH1, ITGB1, and PTPN11. ACVRL1 variants were also identified in a multi-generational VOGM pedigree. Integrative genomic analysis defined developing endothelial cells as a likely spatio-temporal locus of VOGM pathophysiology. Mice expressing a VOGM-specific EPHB4 kinase-domain missense variant (Phe867Leu) exhibited disrupted developmental angiogenesis and impaired hierarchical development of arterial-capillary-venous networks, but only in the presence of a "second-hit" allele. These results illuminate human arterio-venous development and VOGM pathobiology and have implications for patients and their families.

Human genetics and molecular genomics of Chiari malformation type 1.

Chiari malformation type 1 (CM1) is the most common structural brain disorder involving the craniocervical junction, characterized by caudal displacement of the cerebellar tonsils below the foramen magnum into the spinal canal. Despite the heterogeneity of CM1, its poorly understood patho-etiology has led to a 'one-size-fits-all' surgical approach, with predictably high rates of morbidity and treatment failure. In this review we present multiplex CM1 families, associated Mendelian syndromes, and candidate genes from recent whole exome sequencing (WES) and other genetic studies that suggest a significant genetic contribution from inherited and de novo germline variants impacting transcription regulation, craniovertebral osteogenesis, and embryonic developmental signaling. We suggest that more extensive WES may identify clinically relevant, genetically defined CM1 subtypes distinguished by unique neuroradiographic and neurophysiological endophenotypes.

Genetic dysregulation of an endothelial Ras signaling network in vein of Galen malformations.

To elucidate the pathogenesis of vein of Galen malformations (VOGMs), the most common and severe congenital brain arteriovenous malformation, we performed an integrated analysis of 310 VOGM proband-family exomes and 336,326 human cerebrovasculature single-cell transcriptomes. We found the Ras suppressor p120 RasGAP ( RASA1 ) harbored a genome-wide significant burden of loss-of-function de novo variants (p=4.79×10 -7 ). Rare, damaging transmitted variants were enriched in Ephrin receptor-B4 ( EPHB4 ) (p=1.22×10 -5 ), which cooperates with p120 RasGAP to limit Ras activation. Other probands had pathogenic variants in ACVRL1 , NOTCH1 , ITGB1 , and PTPN11 . ACVRL1 variants were also identified in a multi-generational VOGM pedigree. Integrative genomics defined developing endothelial cells as a key spatio-temporal locus of VOGM pathophysiology. Mice expressing a VOGM-specific EPHB4 kinase-domain missense variant exhibited constitutive endothelial Ras/ERK/MAPK activation and impaired hierarchical development of angiogenesis-regulated arterial-capillary-venous networks, but only when carrying a "second-hit" allele. These results illuminate human arterio-venous development and VOGM pathobiology and have clinical implications.

The choroid plexus links innate immunity to CSF dysregulation in hydrocephalus.

The choroid plexus (ChP) is the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier and the primary source of CSF. Acquired hydrocephalus, caused by brain infection or hemorrhage, lacks drug treatments due to obscure pathobiology. Our integrated, multi-omic investigation of post-infectious hydrocephalus (PIH) and post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH) models revealed that lipopolysaccharide and blood breakdown products trigger highly similar TLR4-dependent immune responses at the ChP-CSF interface. The resulting CSF "cytokine storm", elicited from peripherally derived and border-associated ChP macrophages, causes increased CSF production from ChP epithelial cells via phospho-activation of the TNF-receptor-associated kinase SPAK, which serves as a regulatory scaffold of a multi-ion transporter protein complex. Genetic or pharmacological immunomodulation prevents PIH and PHH by antagonizing SPAK-dependent CSF hypersecretion. These results reveal the ChP as a dynamic, cellularly heterogeneous tissue with highly regulated immune-secretory capacity, expand our understanding of ChP immune-epithelial cell cross talk, and reframe PIH and PHH as related neuroimmune disorders vulnerable to small molecule pharmacotherapy.

A neural stem cell paradigm of pediatric hydrocephalus.

Pediatric hydrocephalus, the leading reason for brain surgery in children, is characterized by enlargement of the cerebral ventricles classically attributed to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) overaccumulation. Neurosurgical shunting to reduce CSF volume is the default treatment that intends to reinstate normal CSF homeostasis, yet neurodevelopmental disability often persists in hydrocephalic children despite optimal surgical management. Here, we discuss recent human genetic and animal model studies that are shifting the view of pediatric hydrocephalus from an impaired fluid plumbing model to a new paradigm of dysregulated neural stem cell (NSC) fate. NSCs are neuroprogenitor cells that comprise the germinal neuroepithelium lining the prenatal brain ventricles. We propose that heterogenous defects in the development of these cells converge to disrupt cerebrocortical morphogenesis, leading to abnormal brain-CSF biomechanical interactions that facilitate passive pooling of CSF and secondary ventricular distention. A significant subset of pediatric hydrocephalus may thus in fact be due to a developmental brain malformation leading to secondary enlargement of the ventricles rather than a primary defect of CSF circulation. If hydrocephalus is indeed a neuroradiographic presentation of an inborn brain defect, it suggests the need to focus on optimizing neurodevelopment, rather than CSF diversion, as the primary treatment strategy for these children.

Rethinking the cilia hypothesis of hydrocephalus.

Dysfunction of motile cilia in ependymal cells has been proposed to be a pathogenic cause of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) overaccumulation leading to ventricular expansion in hydrocephalus, primarily based on observations of enlarged ventricles in mouse models of primary ciliary dyskinesia. Here, we review human and animal evidence that warrants a rethinking of the cilia hypothesis in hydrocephalus. First, we discuss neuroembryology and physiology data that do not support a role for ependymal cilia as the primary propeller of CSF movement across the ventricles in the human brain, particularly during in utero development prior to the functional maturation of ependymal cilia. Second, we highlight that in contrast to mouse models, motile ciliopathies infrequently cause hydrocephalus in humans. Instead, gene mutations affecting motile cilia function impact not only ependymal cilia but also motile cilia found in other organ systems outside of the brain, causing a clinical syndrome of recurrent respiratory infections and situs inversus, symptoms that do not typically accompany most cases of human hydrocephalus. Finally, we postulate that certain cases of hydrocephalus associated with ciliary gene mutations may arise not necessarily just from loss of cilia-generated CSF flow but also from altered neurodevelopment, given the potential functions of ciliary genes in signaling and neural stem cell fate beyond generating fluid flow. Further investigations are needed to clarify the link between motile cilia, CSF physiology, and brain development, the understanding of which has implications for the care of patients with hydrocephalus and other related neurodevelopmental disorders.

Long-term outcomes and late toxicity of adult medulloblastoma treated with combined modality therapy: A contemporary single-institution experience.

BACKGROUND: Medulloblastoma (MB) is a rare central nervous system malignancy of adults, with limited contemporary studies to define treatment guidelines and expected late toxicity. METHODS: A single-center, retrospective study was conducted of patients age ≥18 years from 1997-2019 with MB and who were treated with postoperative radiotherapy. Late toxicity was defined as a minimum of 18 months from diagnosis. Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were characterized using Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses. RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients met criteria, with median age of 25 years (range 18-62 y) and median follow-up of 6.5 years (range 0.7-23.1 y). At diagnosis, 68% were standard-risk, 88% Chang M0, and 22% with anaplastic histology. Gross total resection was achieved in 75%; median craniospinal irradiation dose was 30.6 Gy (relative biological effectiveness [RBE]), median total dose was 54.0 Gy (RBE), 80% received proton radiotherapy; 81% received chemotherapy. 5 year PFS and OS were 86.5% and 95.8%, respectively; 10 year PFS and OS were 83.9% and 90.7%, respectively. Anaplastic histology was associated with worse PFS (P = .04). Among eight recurrences, 25% presented after 5 years. Most common grade ≥2 late toxicities were anxiety/depressive symptoms (30%), motor dysfunction (25%), and ototoxicity (22%). Higher posterior fossa radiation dose was associated with increased risk of late toxicity, including worse cognitive dysfunction (P = .05). CONCLUSIONS: Adults with MB have favorable survival outcomes, but late failures and toxicity are not uncommon. Better understanding of prognostic factors, possibly from molecular subtyping, may help to define more personalized treatments for patients with high risk of recurrence and long-term treatment sequelae.

Angiographic Pulse Wave Coherence in the Human Brain.

A stroke volume of arterial blood that arrives to the brain housed in the rigid cranium must be matched over the cardiac cycle by an equivalent volume of ejected venous blood. We hypothesize that the brain maintains this equilibrium by organizing coherent arterial and venous pulse waves. To test this hypothesis, we applied wavelet computational methods to diagnostic cerebral angiograms in four human patients, permitting the capture and analysis of cardiac frequency phenomena from fluoroscopic images acquired at faster than cardiac rate. We found that the cardiac frequency reciprocal phase of a small region of interest (ROI) in a named artery predicts venous anatomy pixel-wise and that the predicted pixels reconstitute venous bolus passage timing. Likewise, a small ROI in a named vein predicts arterial anatomy and arterial bolus passage timing. The predicted arterial and venous pixel groups maintain phase complementarity across the bolus travel. We thus establish a novel computational method to analyze vascular pulse waves from minimally invasive cerebral angiograms and provide the first direct evidence of arteriovenous coupling in the intact human brain. This phenomenon of arteriovenous coupling may be a physiologic mechanism for how the brain precisely maintains mechanical equilibrium against volume displacement and kinetic energy transfer resulting from cyclical deformations with each heartbeat. The study also paves the way to study deranged arteriovenous coupling as an underappreciated pathophysiologic disturbance in a myriad of neurological pathologies linked by mechanical disequilibrium.

Impaired neurogenesis alters brain biomechanics in a neuroprogenitor-based genetic subtype of congenital hydrocephalus.

Hydrocephalus, characterized by cerebral ventricular dilatation, is routinely attributed to primary defects in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) homeostasis. This fosters CSF shunting as the leading reason for brain surgery in children despite considerable disease heterogeneity. In this study, by integrating human brain transcriptomics with whole-exome sequencing of 483 patients with congenital hydrocephalus (CH), we found convergence of CH risk genes in embryonic neuroepithelial stem cells. Of all CH risk genes, TRIM71/lin-41 harbors the most de novo mutations and is most specifically expressed in neuroepithelial cells. Mice harboring neuroepithelial cell-specific Trim71 deletion or CH-specific Trim71 mutation exhibit prenatal hydrocephalus. CH mutations disrupt TRIM71 binding to its RNA targets, causing premature neuroepithelial cell differentiation and reduced neurogenesis. Cortical hypoplasia leads to a hypercompliant cortex and secondary ventricular enlargement without primary defects in CSF circulation. These data highlight the importance of precisely regulated neuroepithelial cell fate for normal brain-CSF biomechanics and support a clinically relevant neuroprogenitor-based paradigm of CH.

Brain ventricles as windows into brain development and disease.

Dilation of the fluid-filled cerebral ventricles (ventriculomegaly) characterizes hydrocephalus and is frequently seen in autism and schizophrenia. Recent work suggests that the genomic study of congenital hydrocephalus may be unexpectedly fertile ground for revealing insights into neural stem cell regulation, human cerebrocortical development, and pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disease.

Clinical outcomes as a function of the number of samples taken during stereotactic needle biopsies: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Stereotactic needle biopsy remains the cornerstone for tissue diagnosis for tumors located in regions of the brain that are difficult to access through open surgery. OBJECTIVE: We perform a meta-analysis of the literature to examine the relation between number of samples taken during biopsy and diagnostic yield, morbidity and mortality. METHODS: We identified 2416 patients from 28 cohorts in studies published in PubMed database that studied stereotactic needle biopsies for tumor indications. Meta-analysis by proportions and meta-regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: On meta-analysis, the morbidity profile of the published needle biopsy studies clustered into three groups: studies that performed < 3 samples (n = 8), 3-6 samples (n = 13), and > 6 samples during biopsy (n = 7). Pooled estimates for biopsy related morbidity were 4.3%, 16.3%, and 17% for studies reporting < 3, 3-6, and > 6 biopsy samples, respectively. While these morbidity estimates significantly differed (p < 0.001), the diagnostic yields reported for studies performing < 3 biopsies, 3-6 samples, and > 6 samples were comparable. Pooled estimates of diagnostic yield for these three groups were 90.4%, 93.8%, and 88.1%, respectively. Mortality did not significantly differ between studies reporting differing number of samples taken during biopsy. CONCLUSIONS: Our meta-analysis suggests that morbidity risk in needle biopsy is non-linearly associated with the number of samples taken. There was no association between the number of biopsies taken, and diagnostic yield or mortality.

Proton Radiation Therapy for Pediatric Craniopharyngioma.

BACKGROUND: Radiation therapy (RT) is used for pediatric craniopharyngioma in the definitive, adjuvant, or salvage settings. Proton RT may be useful owing to tumor proximity to eloquent anatomy. We report clinical outcomes for a large cohort treated with proton therapy. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective review of pediatric patients (≤21 years) treated with surgery and proton therapy for craniopharyngioma between August 2002 and October 2018. Clinical characteristics, treatment course, and outcomes were recorded. Acute toxicity was graded using Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events, version 5.0. Late toxicity was assessed using neuroendocrine, neuro-ophthalmologic, and neuropsychological testing. RESULTS: Among 77 patients, median age at diagnosis was 8.6 years (range, 1.3-20); median age at radiation was 9.6 years (range, 2.3-20.5). Most common presenting symptoms were headache (58%), visual impairment (55%), and endocrinopathy (40%). Patients underwent a median of 2 surgical interventions (range, 1-7) before protons. At initial surgery, 18% had gross total resection, 60% had subtotal resection, and 22% had biopsy/cyst decompression. Median RT dose was 52.2 Gy (relative biologic effectiveness). Common acute toxicities were headache (29%), fatigue (35%), and nausea/vomiting (12%). Only 4% developed any acute grade 3 toxicity. Nine patients experienced cyst growth requiring replanning or surgical decompression. At a median of 4.8 years from RT (range, 0.8-15.6), there were 6 local failures and 3 deaths, 2 related to disease progression. Effect of tumor and treatment contributed to late toxicity including Moyamoya syndrome (13%), visual impairment (40%), and endocrine deficiency requiring hormone replacement (94%). Subclinical decline in functional independence and adaptive skills in everyday life was detected at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Surgery and proton therapy results in excellent disease control for pediatric craniopharyngioma. Severe acute toxicity is rare. Late toxicities from tumor, surgery, and radiation remain prevalent. Endocrine and ophthalmology follow-up is necessary, and neuropsychological testing may identify patients at risk for treatment-related cognitive and adaptive functioning changes.

Exome sequencing implicates genetic disruption of prenatal neuro-gliogenesis in sporadic congenital hydrocephalus.

Congenital hydrocephalus (CH), characterized by enlarged brain ventricles, is considered a disease of excessive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) accumulation and thereby treated with neurosurgical CSF diversion with high morbidity and failure rates. The poor neurodevelopmental outcomes and persistence of ventriculomegaly in some post-surgical patients highlight our limited knowledge of disease mechanisms. Through whole-exome sequencing of 381 patients (232 trios) with sporadic, neurosurgically treated CH, we found that damaging de novo mutations account for >17% of cases, with five different genes exhibiting a significant de novo mutation burden. In all, rare, damaging mutations with large effect contributed to ~22% of sporadic CH cases. Multiple CH genes are key regulators of neural stem cell biology and converge in human transcriptional networks and cell types pertinent for fetal neuro-gliogenesis. These data implicate genetic disruption of early brain development, not impaired CSF dynamics, as the primary pathomechanism of a significant number of patients with sporadic CH.

De Novo Mutation in Genes Regulating Neural Stem Cell Fate in Human Congenital Hydrocephalus.

Congenital hydrocephalus (CH), featuring markedly enlarged brain ventricles, is thought to arise from failed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) homeostasis and is treated with lifelong surgical CSF shunting with substantial morbidity. CH pathogenesis is poorly understood. Exome sequencing of 125 CH trios and 52 additional probands identified three genes with significant burden of rare damaging de novo or transmitted mutations: TRIM71 (p = 2.15 × 10-7), SMARCC1 (p = 8.15 × 10-10), and PTCH1 (p = 1.06 × 10-6). Additionally, two de novo duplications were identified at the SHH locus, encoding the PTCH1 ligand (p = 1.2 × 10-4). Together, these probands account for ∼10% of studied cases. Strikingly, all four genes are required for neural tube development and regulate ventricular zone neural stem cell fate. These results implicate impaired neurogenesis (rather than active CSF accumulation) in the pathogenesis of a subset of CH patients, with potential diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic ramifications.

The role of proton beam therapy in central neurocytoma: A single-institution experience.

PURPOSE: Central neurocytomas (CNs) are rare World Health Organization grade II tumors managed with surgery and radiation therapy. We report our experience in managing CN with proton beam therapy (PBT) when radiation therapy was used. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We identified 61 patients with pathologically diagnosed CN treated at our institution between 1996 and 2016, of which 24 met inclusion criteria. Patient, tumor, and treatment characteristics are reported in context of progression-free survival and treatment-related adverse events. RESULTS: Of 24 patients identified, median age at diagnosis was 21 years (range, 14-60). Median maximal tumor diameter was 4.5 cm (range, 1.4-6.8). Eighteen (75%) patients underwent upfront surgery alone. Sixteen (67%) patients received adjuvant or salvage PBT at a median dose of 54 Gy (relative biological effectiveness). Median follow-up was 56 months. Median progression-free survival (PFS) was 61 months. Eleven patients had disease progression with median time to progression of 22 months. Of the 5 patients with gross total resection, 4 experienced local recurrence and had MIB-1 >4% (range, 4.5-30). There was improved PFS with addition of PBT to definitive surgery (log-rank, P = .06); there was no disease progression to date. In patients who experienced disease recurrence/progression, MIB-1 <4% was associated with improved PFS (log-rank, P = .007). All patients tolerated PBT well with toxicities typical for cranial irradiation and with no grade 3+ toxicities. CONCLUSION: In our cohort, CN with elevated MIB-1 index were at increased risk for disease progression. However, adjuvant radiation therapy appears to effectively prevent failure. PBT toxicities appear to be comparable to if not less than published photon experiences.

Surgical management of superior petrosal sinus dural arteriovenous fistulae with dominant internal carotid artery supply.

Background While technological advances have improved the efficacy of endovascular techniques for tentorial dural arteriovenous fistulae (DAVF), superior petrosal sinus (SPS) DAVF with dominant internal carotid artery (ICA) supply frequently require surgical intervention to achieve a definitive cure. Methods To compare the angiographic and clinical outcomes of endovascular and surgical interventions in patients with SPS DAVF, the records of all patients with tentorial DAVF from August 2010 to November 2015 were reviewed. Results Within this cohort, eight patients with nine SPS DAVF were eligible for evaluation. Five DAVF were initially treated with endovascular embolization, while four underwent surgical occlusion without embolization. Of the SPS DAVF treated with embolization, two (40%) remained occluded on follow-up, while the remaining three (60%) persisted/recurred and required surgical intervention for definitive closure. Of the four SPS DAVF treated with primary surgical occlusion, all four (100%) remained closed on follow-up. In addition, of the three SPS DAVF that persisted/recurred following embolization and required subsequent surgical closure, all three (100%) remained occluded on follow-up. Two (100%) SPS DAVF that were successfully treated with embolization had major or minor external carotid artery supply, while the three (100%) persistent lesions had major ICA supply via the meningohypophyseal trunk (MHT). Three (75%) of the four SPS DAVF treated with primary surgical occlusion had dominant MHT supply. Conclusion Complete endovascular closure of SPS DAVF with dominant ICA supply via the MHT may be difficult to achieve, while upfront surgical intervention is associated with a high rate of complete occlusion.

Flow diversion of a recurrent, iatrogenic basilar tip aneurysm in a pediatric patient: case report.

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) is a common treatment for noncommunicating hydrocephalus. Although rare, vascular injury and traumatic pseudoaneurysm development during ETV have been reported. The authors present the case of a 13-year-old boy who underwent repeat ETV (rETV) for shunt and ETV failure, and who suffered an intraoperative subarachnoid hemorrhage due to iatrogenic injury to the basilar tip, with subsequent development of a pseudoaneurysm. Despite initial primary coil embolization, the aneurysm recurred and was definitively treated with flow diversion. In this report, the authors review complication rates associated with ETV and rETV as well as the emerging use of flow diversion and its applications in vessel reconstruction within the pediatric population.

Rare Giant Prevertebral Thoracic Myelomeningocele.

Here we report a 72-year-old man who presented with complaint of sudden-onset weakness and impaired sensation in the left lower extremity. Radiographic evaluation revealed a congenital malformation with multiple formation defects including a giant thoracic prevertebral myelomeningocele. Following microsurgical detethering of the spinal cord, the patient recovered ambulation with assist. While thoracic myelomeningoceles are themselves rare, in this case the patient presented at a late age and responded well to conservative management.

Wavelet brain angiography suggests arteriovenous pulse wave phase locking.

When a stroke volume of arterial blood arrives to the brain, the total blood volume in the bony cranium must remain constant as the proportions of arterial and venous blood vary, and by the end of the cardiac cycle an equivalent volume of venous blood must have been ejected. I hypothesize the brain to support this process by an extraluminally mediated exchange of information between its arterial and venous circulations. To test this I introduce wavelet angiography methods to resolve single moving vascular pulse waves (PWs) in the brain while simultaneously measuring brain pulse motion. The wavelet methods require angiographic data acquired at significantly faster rate than cardiac frequency. I obtained these data in humans from brain surface optical angiograms at craniotomy and in piglets from ultrasound angiograms via cranial window. I exploit angiographic time of flight to resolve arterial from venous circulation. Initial wavelet reconstruction proved unsatisfactory because of angiographic motion alias from brain pulse motion. Testing with numerically simulated cerebral angiograms enabled the development of a vascular PW cine imaging method based on cross-correlated wavelets of mixed high frequency and high temporal resolution respectively to attenuate frequency and motion alias. Applied to the human and piglet data, the method resolves individual arterial and venous PWs and finds them to be phase locked each with separate phase relations to brain pulse motion. This is consistent with arterial and venous PW coordination mediated by pulse motion and points to a testable hypothesis of a function of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain.